The Sutras, Samkhya Philosophy

The Sutras, Samkhya Philosophy The Sutras are built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy. The division into the Eight Limbs (Sanskrit Ashtanga) of Yoga is reminiscent of Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path; inclusion of Brahmaviharas (Yoga Sutra 1:33) also shows Buddhisms influence on parts of the Sutras. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali prescribes adherence to eight limbs or steps (the sum of which constitute Ashtanga Yoga, the title of the second chapter) to quiet ones mind and achieve kaivalya. The Yoga Sutras form the theoretical and philosophical basis of Raja Yoga, and are considered to be the most organized and complete definition of that discipline. Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a book of 195/6 separate phrases that are designed to be easy to memorize. Because it is a work that is every bit as much a part of modern yoga as it was a part of the birth of yoga, this particular book is held in very high esteem in the yoga world. Philosophical Background There are several philosophical concepts, which were pondered over by various schools of thought around 600 B.C. to 400 A.D. in eastern region of the world. The school of Samkhya is one of those philosophical systems. Samkhya, marks the shifting of idea from Vedic monism to the concept of dualism as the primary cause of the universe. In Samkhya philosophy it distinguishing between Self (Spirit/Consciousness Purusha) and Matter/Nature (Prakrti) is of central importance to Samkhya Philosophy. Samkhya Philosophy elaborates a fundamental dualism between such aware Selves and all the phenomena that is presented to such Selves by Matter/Nature. Such phenomena of Matter/Nature includes reflections of the intellect, the faculty that makes things personal (the I-Maker/Ahamkara), the instinctual mind (manas), the capacities to perceive sense data, the capacities to act, the principles of the elements of sense perception, and the gross elements. These arise when Prakriti is in the presence of a Purusha, and they become enmeshed and entangled when there is mis-identification between Prakriti and Purusha. False confusion between the Self and what is not the Self is considered the fundamental ignorance that perpetuates bondage in this world. Liberation is sought by becoming aware of such distinctions on a very deep level of pe rsonal knowledge, so that one may eventually use the great faculty of the mind intellectual reflection (Buddhi/Mahat) without mistakenly identifying it with the Purusha, and then the effects of such entanglement will unravel and one will no longer be bound by incarnations or confused by Prakriti In Samkhya philosophy a guna is one of Prakritis three tendencies: tamas, sattva, and rajas. Guna is the tendency of the mind and not the state. For instance, sattva guna is that force which tends to bring the mind to purity but is not purity itself. Similarly rajas guna is that force which tends to bring the mind to perform some action but is not action itself. Sattva (originally being, existence, entity) has been translated to mean balance, order, or purity. This typically implies that a person with more of Sattva has a positive or even orderly state of mind. Such a person is psychologically kind, calm, alert and thoughtful. Rajas leads one to activity. This type of activity is explained by the term Yogakshem. Yogakshem is composed of two words: Yoga and Kshem. Yoga in the present context is acquiring something that one does not have. Kshem means losing something that one already has. Rajas is the force that creates desires for acquiring new things and fears for losing something that one has. These desires and fears lead one to activity. Tamas has been translated to mean too inactive, negative, lethargic, dull, or slow. It is the quality of inertia which provides coherence for all things. Mentally, it is associated with darkness, delusion, or ignorance. A tamas quality also can imply that a person has a self-destructive or entropic state of mind. That person is constantly pursuing destructive activities. Vedanta maintains that Brahman is the only Immaterial Sentient Existence; and being non-material and simple, It has to be all pervading and the only One Reality. Before everything there exists Reality as Absolute Consciousness. The Will to become many is the beginning of manifest universe. The Will evolves as Illusion: the Maya. Absolute Consciousness, Brahman, willed to become many, this is Maya. Maya is the cosmic illusion that creates ignorance and veils the vision of the Only Reality. Due to the power of Maya, the Same Oneness is perceived as manifold universe. Absolute Consciousness was never modified, is not modified, and will not be modified. This is the basis of Advaita Vedanta. Based on their experiences the seers or rishis of ancient ages came to the conclusion that the entire manifest universe is the illusory expression of One Substance -the Absolute Universal Consciousness. Samkhya with its dual philosophy is said to be the foundation of The Yogasutras and Purusa and Prakriti are a fundamental part of the text. The origin of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is the topic of some debate among both historians and practitioners. For instance, there are some people who credit the writing of this set of sutras to a grammarian named Patanjali. Later, though, a timeline was constructed that showed that to be unlikely. Within the yoga community, though, many say that Patanjali was actually just a compiler and that before the work was written, the Sutras were simply memorized and passed down between teacher and student. Timelines do, though, suggest this text was constructed in about the second century B.C. An objective study might well suggest that Patanjali lived within even a more tight range of 200 BC to 200 AD (or around the time of Jesus), than some common suppositions (as if he were the 2nd century BCE grammarian by the same name) or even the second or third centuries CE based on the dates of the first extant commentary (by Vyasa). ATHA YOGANUSASANAM Atha = now, Yoga = Of Yoga, Anusasanam = exposition or instruction. Now the exposition of Yoga is being made. (Patanjali Ch-1, Vs-1) The name of this text is named using Sanskrit words: yoga, is a mindset wherein you are able to gain mastery of feelings and thoughts alike. Sutra literally means thread. This thread is basically the connection between the sutras in the work. These Sutras are just combinations of words threaded together sometimes not even well formed sentences with subjects, predicates and so on. Within the space of these 196 short Sutras, the entire science of Yoga is clearly delineated: its aim, the necessary practices, the obstacles one may meet along the path, their removal, and precise descriptions of the results that will be obtained from such practices. (Sri Swami Satchidananda The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Ch-1, Pg-1). (b) Give a brief summary of the four chapters The sutras in the text are divided into four books (chapters). Fifty one of the sutras are contained in the book called Samadhi Pada, fifty five of them are in Sadhana Pada, fifty six are also in Vibhuti Pada, and thirty four of the sutras can be found in Kaivalya Pada. Yoga Sutras Chapter 1 Concentration Samadhi Pada The book Samadhi Pada contains sutras that are most considered fundamental to yoga. It emphasizes that yoga is about discipline and that it is the ability to master your feelings and thoughts. Many of the most famous yoga sutras come from this particular book Concentration: Chapter 1 of the Yoga Sutras is entitled Samadhi Pada, which means the chapter on concentration. Chapter 1 describes yoga, witnessing five kinds of thoughts, uncoloring thoughts, the twin principles of practice and non-attachment, the stages of concentration, efforts and commitments, obstacles and solutions, and means and results of stabilizing the mind. . Yoga Sutras Chapter 2 Practice Sadhana Pada In the Sadhana Pada, there is much about practice since the Sanskrit word sadhana actually does mean practice. This chapter is where Kriya Yoga and the eight limbs of yoga first appear. These aspects reflect the idea that yoga is both selfless and spiritual. Practices: Chapter 2 of the Yoga Sutras is entitled Sadhana Pada, which means the chapter on practices. Chapter 2 outlines specific tools of attention that are used to systematically carve out, or cut away the obstacles of the inner mental shield that is blocking the light of the Self within. This includes the first 5 of the 8 rungs of yoga, known as ashtanga yoga. Yoga in the form of action (kriya yoga) has three parts: 1) Training and purifying the senses (tapas), 2) Self-study in the context of teachings (svadhyaya), 3) Devotion and letting go into the creative source from which we emerged (iswara pranidhana). (tapah svadhyaya ishvara-pranidhana kriya-yogah) Tapah = literally heat accepting the purifying aspects of painful experience, purifying action, training the senses Svadhyaya = lit ones own or self-study in the context of teachings, remembrance of sacred word or mantra Iswara = creative source, causal field, supreme Guru or teacher. Omniscient But not Omnipotent pranidhana = practicing the presence, dedication, devotion, surrender of fruits of practice, or contemplation. Kriya-yogah = yoga of practice, action, mental purification Kriya Yoga: When thinking about life and spiritual practices, it is easy then to remind yourself of this foundation by internally saying such words as, I need to train my senses, explore within, and let go of these attachments and aversions. Contained in a simple sentence like this is the outline of Kriya Yoga (that simple sentence contains tapas, svadhyaya, and ishvara pranidhana). Iswara pranidhana: The emphasis of iswara pranidhana practice is the release or surrender that is done in a sincere, dedicated, or devotional attitude. It is easy to get caught up in debates over the nature of God, Guru, creative source, and teacher. Yoga is very broad and non-sectarian, leaving it open to each individual how to perceive these realities. The more important part is that of letting go rather than holding on to the images and desires of the senses (tapas) and the personal characteristics and makeup uncovered through introspection (svadhyaya). Iswara: In the Upanishads, the word Ä ªÃƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬ ºwara is used to denote a state of collective consciousness. Thus, The Lord is not a being that sits on a high pedestal beyond the sun, moon, and stars; Iswara is actually the state of Ultimate Reality. But due to the lack of direct experience, The God has been personified and given various names and forms by religions throughout the ages. When one expands ones individual consciousness to the Universal Consciousness, it is called Self-realization, for the individual self has realized the unity of diversity, the very underlying principle, or Universal Self, beneath all forms and names. This is the fundamental difference between monism and dualism, one is essentially theistic and the other is not. Yoga Sutras Chapter 3 Progressing Vibhuti Pada The Vibhuti Pada can be translated power. The roles of the sutras in this particular book are to describe and help the yogi to achieve full awareness through yoga. It is essentially about attaining higher levels of awareness of ones self. Progressing: Chapter 3 of the Yoga Sutras is entitled Vibhuti Pada, which means the chapter on progressing. Chapter 3 starts by presenting the last 3 of the 8 rungs of yoga, which are concentration, meditation, and samadhi, collectively known as samyama. The rest of the chapter explains how samyama is used as the finer tool to remove the subtler veils of ignorance. The last three rungs of Yoga: Dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi are the final three rungs of Yoga. Dharana: Concentration is the process of holding or fixing the attention of mind onto one object or place. Dhyana: Meditation is sustained concentration, whereby the attention continues to hold or repeat the same object or place. Samadhi: Samadhi is the deep absorption, wherein only the essence of that object, place, or point shines forth in the mind, as if the mind were devoid even of its own form. Stages of attention: It is attention itself, which is progressively moving inward through these few stages: Attention leads to concentration (dharana). Concentration leads to meditation (dhyana). Meditation leads to absorption (samadhi). Yoga Sutras Chapter 4 Liberation Kaivalya Pada Meaning of Kaivalya: The fourth chapter of the Yoga Sutras is entitled Kaivalya Pada. The word Kaivalya literally translates as isolation. It is usually taken to mean liberation or enlightenment. However, the way in which isolation is a quite effective term is that pure consciousness or purusha is now standing alone, separate from all of the manifestations of prakriti, including literally all of the manifestations or swirlings of all levels of the mind field. In Sutra 1.16 supreme non-attachment is mentioned as a stage beyond the many other levels of attachment. Sutra 4.32 explains how the primary elements called gunas have finished their purpose and recede in perfect equilibrium into that from which they arose. These are aspects or byproducts of the process of the isolation (kaivalya) of pure consciousness (purusha). Purusa is literally liberated from its attachment to Prakriti. The purpose of the whole of creation is to give us a context for understanding what we are and what we are not. When we understand that, then there is kaivalya, and prakrti has fulfilled its purpose. A person who experiences kaivalya sees prakrti, the material world, simply as it is, with no meaning beyond that. Kaivalya describes the effect on the personality of being in a continuous state of samadhi. This is the state of inner freedom that yoga strives for. A person in the state of kaivalya understands the world so well that he stands apart from it in the sense that he is not influenced by it, although he may well be in a position to influence the world. People in kaivalya behave like normal people, but they do not carry the burden of the world on their shoulders. They live in the world, but they are not subject to it. They are not free from sensual perception or free of the body, they have a foot in both worlds. Wherever they happen to be, they are sure of themselves. That is kaivalya. External forces have no power over a person like this, though he knows the external world very well. (c) Choose two of the following topics: Yogic concept of the mind The Kleshas Kriya Yoga Significance of Iswara The Siddhis The Yogic concept of the mind YOGAS CITTA VRTTI NIRODHAH Yogas = Yoga, Chitta = of the mind stuff, Vritti = modifications, Nirodhah = restraint. The restraint of the modifications of the mind stuff is Yoga (Patanjali Ch-1, Vs-2) In this Sutra Patanjali gives the goal of Yoga. For a keen student this one Sutra would be enough because the rest of them only explain this one. If the restraint of the mental modifications is achieved one has reached the goal of Yoga. The entire science of Yoga is based on this. Patanjali has given the definition of Yoga and at the same time the practice. If you can control the rising of the mind into ripples, you will experience Yoga (Sri Swami Satchidananda The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Ch-1, Pg-3,4). Normally, the word Yoga is translated as union, but for a union there should be two things to unite. In this case, what is to unite with what? So here we take Yoga to mean the Yogic experience. The extraordinary experience gained by controlling the modifications of the mind itself is called Yoga (Sri Swami Satchidananda The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Ch-1, Pg-4). There is a Sanskrit saying; Mana eva manushyanam karanam bandha mokshayoho. As the mind, so the man; bondage; or liberation are in your mind. If you feel bound, you are bound. If you feel liberated you are liberated. Things outside neither bind nor liberate you; only your attitude toward them does that. These vrittis, or mental activities/modifications, are said to be either painful, or not painful. They are five-fold :- PRAMANA VIPARYAYA VIKALPA NIDRA SMRTAYAH Pramana = right knowledge; Viparyaya = misconception, Vikalpa = verbal delusions, Nidra = sleep, Smritayah = memory The are right knowledge, misconception, verbal delusion, sleep and memory (Patanjali Ch-I, Vs-6 ) Patanjali explains that right-knowledge can be acquired by direct perception, inference, or testimony. In other words, one can sail the ocean personally and bring back direct knowledge, or one can hear of the travels undertaken by another sailor explorer, or one can read the book written by the sailor on his return. Even right-knowledge is however limited as the original sailor still cannot know everything there is to know about the ocean he is exploring. Wrong-knowledge is likened to the delusion we experience when we see something and believe it to be something else, such as a snake in the dark which proves to be nothing but a rope when seen in daylight. Imagination is perception which is coloured by fanciful thoughts or dreams. The dreaming phase of sleep known as the REM phase is littered with random thought patterns, but even the deep-sleep stage, which leaves no conscious trace in the mind, is actually a stage of thought. The sleeper knows nothing, but knows that he knew nothing on waking. All extraneous thought is temporarily suspended and only the thought of emptiness remains to leave an impression on waking. Memory is the process of remembering past experience. Each memory is first processed to make it palatable, and then filed for future reference, leaving an impression in the mind. These impressions can either remain on the surface of the mind and be recalled at will, or sink to the bottom where they take root. Patanjali describes the restless mind as outgoing (paranga cetana) and the quiet inward-turned mind as (pratyak cetana) I.29. When the mind focuses on external influences the Self appears to assume the forms and images projected by the mind. When the vritti activities are quietened through sensory withdrawal, concentration, and meditation, man is said to rest in his true nature. Patanjali gives us two tools which will help us control the mind abhyasa or regular, sustained practice, and vairagya, a process of detachment from objects of desire, which is attained as a direct result of abhyasa. Patanjali likens both states of mind to a mirror. When the mirror is dusty or smeared, it reflects a distorted image of whatever it reflects. When the mirror is cleaned the image is reflected without distortion, shining in its own essence samadhi. Patanjali concludes by saying that success in Yoga depends on the strength of our desire for enlightenment, and the amount of effort we are prepared to put into our practice. The Siddhis KAYEDRIYA SIDDHIR ASUDDHI KSAYAT TAPASAH Kaya = body, Indriya = senses, Siddhi = occult powers, Asuddhi = impurities, kshayat = due to destruction, Tapasah = austerities. By austerity, impurities of the body and senses are destroyed and occult powers gained. (Patanjali Ch-2, Vs-43) Siddhi is a Sanskrit word that literally means accomplishment, attainment, or success. It is also used as a term for spiritual power (or psychic ability). The term is used in that sense in Hinduism and Tantric Buddhism. These spiritual powers supposedly vary from relatively simple forms of clairvoyance to being able to levitate, to be present at various places at once, to become as small as an atom, to materialize objects, to have access to memories from past lives, and more. There are many perspectives of attaining Siddhis. One school of thought states that they are a normal set of occurrences that should not be focused upon because they will pull one from the path. Other perspectives hold that each siddhi should be pursued because it will allow one to understand the power of the Godhead. Siddhis may occur in many ways: naturally though the agency of karma, as a result of extended practice (sadhana), through rigorous austerities (tapasya) or by grace. They are often mentioned in conjunction with Riddhi (pl Riddhis), which means material or worldly wealth, power, luxurious lifestyles, etc. TRAYAM EKATRA SAMYAMAH Trayam = the three; Ekatra = upon one object; samyama = the practice of dharana, dhyana and samadhi. The practice of these three (dharana, dhyana and samadhi)upon one object is called samyama. (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-4) From the practice of samyama, come the siddhis. You dive deeply into an object or idea, and it releases its secrets. In a way, scientists have done samyama on the atomic particles. The particles released their energy, and the scientists got the knowledge of them. They accomplished the truth behind the particles. Samyama is usually done on objects or ideas connected with results. When the results come, you call them siddhis or vibhuti. (Patanjali Ch-3, Pg-177). TAD VAIRAGYAD API DOSA BIJA KSAYE KAIVALYAM Tad = that; Vairagyat = by non attachment; Api = even; Dosha bija = seed of bondage; Kshaye = destroyed; Kaivalyam = independence. By non attachment even to that (all these siddhis), the seed of bondage is destroyed and thus follows Kaivalya (Independence) (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-51) This means that all those siddhis are beautiful, but they will bind us, because siddhis are the outcome of the mind. The mind wants something. It wants to achieve this or that. What for? To be proud of itself, It develops ego, It makes your I and mine bigger, Selfish desires are still there. So are the siddhis bad? If so why are they there? I say they are not bad. They are beautiful; they are good. When? They come to you. When you run after them they are bad. Thats all the difference. Let the siddhis come and beg. Dont become a slave or attached to siddhis let them come to you and be used as tools (Sri Swami Satchidananda The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Ch-3, Pg-199,200). Nine main Siddhis Parkaya Pravesha: Parkaya Pravesh means ones soul entering into the body of some other person. Through this knowledge even a dead body can be brought to life. Haadi Vidya: This Vidya or knowledge has been mentioned in several ancient texts. On acquiring this Vidya, a person feels neither hunger nor thirst, and can remain without eating food or drinking water for several days at a stretch. Kaadi Vidya: Just as one does not feel hungry or thirsty in Haadi Vidya, similarly in Kaadi Vidya a person is not affected by change of seasons, i.e. by summer, winter, rain, etc. After accomplishing this Vidya, a person shall not feel cold even if he sits in the snow-laden mountains, and shall not feel hot even if he sits in the fire. Vayu Gaman Siddhi: Through this Siddhi a person can become capable of flying in the skies and traveling from one place to another in just a few seconds. Madalasa Vidya: On accomplishing this Vidya, a person becomes capable of increasing or decreasing the size of his body according to his wish. Lord Hanuman had miniaturized his body through this Vidya while entering the city of Lanka. Kanakdhara Siddhi: One can acquire immense and unlimited wealth through this Siddhi. Prakya Sadhana: Through this Sadhana a Yogi can direct his disciple to take birth from the womb of a woman who is childless or cannot bear children. Surya Vigyan: This solar science is one of the most significant sciences of ancient India. This science has been known only to the Indian Yogis; using it, one substance can be transformed into another through the medium of sun rays. Mrit Sanjeevani Vidya: This Vidya was created by Guru Shukracharya. Through it, even a dead person can be brought back to life. I recognise some of these Siddhis from the Shaman rituals that are carried out, for example the native americans used rituals/dances and trances to empthise and take on the characteristics and power of wolves and eagles, wearing feathers and or wolf hide etc. to help invoke the powers. (d) List the yamas and niyamas and give a brief translation of their names. Do you feel they are rules to be observed? Or are they the result of sustained practice of yoga? Yamas: There are many interpretations of and opinions about the yamas and niyamas. While the ancient Indian text, the Bhagavata Purana assigns 12 yogic restraints the Parashar Smriti, another text, puts forward ten. But the yamas as described in Patanjalis Yoga Sutras there are only five, which are also known as the great universal vows or the sarvabhauma maha vratas, because they are not limited by either class, creed, time or circumstances. They are the guidelines for how we interact with the outer world, the social disciplines to guide us in our relationships with others. These five are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ahimsa (non-violence), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Satya (truthfulness), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Asteya (non-stealing), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Brahmacharya (celibacy) and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Aparigraha (non-covetousness) Niyamas: The niyamas are the second constituents of Ashtanga Yoga. How we interact with ourselves, our internal world. The niyamas are about self-regulation-helping us maintain a positive environment in which to grow. Their practice harnesses the energy generated from the cultivation of the earlier yamas. According to sage Yajnavalkya, there are ten niyamas and the Bhagavad Gita lists 11 constituents. But Patanjali names only five: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Shaucha or purity, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Santosha or contentment, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Tapa or austerity, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Swadhyaya or self-education and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ishwar-Pranidhan or meditation on the Divine The Benefits of Practicing Yamas and Niyamas: The yamas and niyamas help in managing our energy in an integrative manner, complementing our outer life to our inner development. They help us view ourselves with compassion and awareness. They help in respecting the values of this life, in balancing our inner growth with outer restraint. In short they help us to lead a conscious-life. Yamas and niyamas are not about right and wrong. They are about being honest with the true Self. Living according to these principles are about living our lives in a better way, about moving towards an understanding, about making it possible to connect with the Divine. (e) Define the terms dharana, dhyana and samadhi. Briefly summarise the differences between them. The last three rungs of Yoga: Dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi are the final three rungs of Yoga. Dharana: Concentration is the process of holding or fixing the attention of mind onto one object or place. DESABANDHAS CITTASYA DHARANA Desabandhah = binding to one place; chittasya = of the mind ; dharana = concentration. Dharana is the binding of the mind to one place, object or idea. (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-1). Dhyana: Meditation is sustained concentration, whereby the attention continues to hold or repeat the same object or place. TATRA PRATYAYAIKATANATA DHYANAM Tatra = therein; Pratyaya = flow of cognition; Ekatanata = continued; Dhyanam = meditation. Dhyana is the continuous flow of cognition toward that object. (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-2). Samadhi: Samadhi is the deep absorption, wherein only the essence of that object, place, or point shines forth in the mind, as if the mind were devoid even of its own form. TAD EVARTHMATRA NIRBHASAM SVARUPA SUNYAM IVA SAMADHIH Tad eva = that (meditation) itself; Arthamatra = the object alone; Nirbhasam = shining; Svarupa = of its own form; Sunyam = devoid of; Iva = as if samadhih = contemplation. Samadhih is the same meditation when there is the shinig of the object alone, as if devoid of form. (Patanjali Ch-3, Vs-3). The differences between Dharana, Meditation and Samadhi are subtle but profound, in my view they are more complimentary than different, they are like a two dimensional jigsaw, when joined up becomes three-dimensional. In Dharana you are training the mind. It is the beginning of meditation. Concentration is the beginning of meditation. Normally, we see our mind running here and there. When we try to fix it on one thing, within a fraction of a second we see it somewhere else, keeping it fixed on one thing is concentration. Meditation is the culmination of concentration, continuous flow; it is like pouring oil from one pot into another. The mind is fixed; communication between meditator and object is steady. Time and space has no meaning in meditation; when you feel five minutes as an hour, you are not meditating; you are still concentrating, whereas when an hour feels like five minutes that is meditation. Meditation culminates in the state of Samadhih. One cant consciously practice Samadhih. In Samadhih there is neither the object nor the meditator. There is no feeling of I am meditating on that.

5G New Waveform Signal Analysis

5G New Waveform Signal Analysis UF-OFDM, FBMC and GFDM are under investigation worldwide as promising candidates of the New Waveform for 5G mobile communication systems. This paper describes features of their signal processing technologies and issues. New Waveform analysis environment is also introduced. Impact of each waveform to existing system can be estimated quickly by the environment. 1 Introduction Preparations for the migration from LTE/LTE-Advanced to next-generation mobile communications systems (5G) are progressing in various regions worldwide. In particular, the European METIS) and 5GNOW projects have advanced the research of new waveforms meeting 5G requirements. LTE/ LTE-Advanced currently uses Cyclic Prefix Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (CP-OFDM) as the wireless signal multiplexing method, because it has high spectrum efficiency as well as high tolerance against multipath propagation and fading. On the other hand, CP-ODFM signal requires high linearity to output power amplifiers according to its high peak to average power ratio (PAPR). As a result, the power amplifier efficiency is low, increasing the User Equipment (UE) battery power consumption. Consequently, there are problems with shortened hours to receive wireless services. Moreover, the CP-OFDM spectrum has high out-of-band (OOB) sidelobes, causing problem with lowered spectrum efficiency when many UEs are operating at one location. Improving CP-OFDM is under way to solve these problems that constitute barriers to 5G system deployment. Currently, use of the Filtered Multi-carrier technology is examined to reduce the OOB sidelobes and is recognized as New Waveform. Various different methods have been proposed for implementing the Filtered Multi-carrier technology. These methods offer to improve CP-OFDM using sub-carrier filtering but each filtering method is different. Since these new waveforms are different from the CP-OFDM waveform used in LTE/LTE-Advanced, PAPR and spectrum shape are also different. As a result, devices with designs optimized for CP-OFDM are no longer optimum for the new waveforms. Therefore, RF devices, UEs and Base Stations for 5G systems will require new test instruments to generate and receive new waveforms for their various performance evaluations. 2 Example of New Waveforms This chapter explains proposed main methods of the Filtered Multi-carrier technology, in particular UF-OFDM (Universal Filtered Orthogonal Frequency Multiplex), FBMC (Filter Bank Multi-Carrier), and GFDM (Generalized Frequency Division Multiplexing). 2.1 UF-OFDM UF-OFDM is a method for improving OOB characteristics by filtering each block. UF-OFDM allows a mapped signal to be allocated to a predetermined number of blocks and number of sub-carriers for each block. The data for each block are calculated using Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (iDFT) and converted to time sequence data equal to the total number of sub-carriers. As a consequence, the UF-OFDM signal becomes a time series with a length extended by (the filter tap number. The length can be set equal to the length of cyclic prefix (CP) of CP-OFDM signal. Therefore UF-OFDM has higher compatibility with the CP-OFDM. The time series signal from modulation side is pre-processed for filtering interference and S/P converted, demodulation is performed by FFT of twice the number of total sub-carriers. The demodulated signal is demapped to each symbol group after radio channel correction for each sub-carrier. Other demodulation methods such as ZF (Zero-Forcing), MF (Matched Filter), and MMSE (Minimum Mean Square Error) have also been discussed. Transmission distortion, receiver performance in the mobile environment and circuit scale, etc. will be key factors for their adoption. The OOB sidelobes have been significantly improved, being better by about 40 dB than those of CP-OFDM. Although UF-OFDM improves the OOB by filtering each block, its performance is affected by the inserted filter which causes the amplitude and phase distortion. Their results show the constellation without correction of the filter distortion. The constellation is scattered in each block in the direction of amplitude and phase due to the filter characteristics. A UF-OFDM signal (time series length of N + L à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1) using a filter with L taps is longer than the OFDM signal with the same number of sub-carriers (N). However, demodulation of the UF-OFDM signal could be desired to be performed by N point-FFT instead of 2N point-FFT, as well as that of the OFDM signal. 2.2 FBMC Unlike UF-OFDM, since FBMC is a method for improving OOB characteristics by filtering each subcarrier, it is also expected to improve the Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI) characteristics. The FBMC multicarrier modulation techniques allow the orthogonality between the Offset-QAM (OQAM) sub-carriers to be fully assured. Since narrowband filters are used for the FBMC sub-carriers, the number of digital filter taps can be larger than the total sub-carrier number. This filter method can be implemented in two ways-in the frequency domain, or in the time domain. To fix the iFFT length to the same total sub-carrier number, time domain processing method is suitable and Poly Phase Network (PPN) is used. FBMC using this narrowband filtering has greatly improved OOB characteristics. On the other hand, the number of filter taps required to improve the characteristics is about four times the total sub-carrier number, creating a four times processing latency in a PPN configuration. Accordingly, although FBMC is problem-free for bitpipe communications such as video streaming, it has lower transmission efficiency for short packets. In the actual application, besides these blocks, there is additional processing such as equalization for each sub-carrier and filtering to remove interference caused by transmission distortion. 2.3 GFDM GFDM is a new concept method in which conventional OFDM is generalized, and it is based on the block oriented Filtered Multi-carrier method following the Gabor principle. Symbol configuration of GFDM is composed of time frequency blocks made up of a number of sub-carriers K and a number of subsymbols M with high flexibility. The modulation filter processing uses pulse-shaping filter g[n] for each sub-carrier and is implemented using cyclic convolution processing. The demodulation filter processing is performed using the same filter as modulation processing and reduces the Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI). This filtering for each sub-carrier improves the GFDM OOB characteristics but generates ISI and ICI and insertion of an interference canceler is being investigated to reduce ISI and ICI caused by this filtering. The constellation for all sub-carriers show that the symbol constellation is not converged at one point due to the effect of ICI. These results are one example of using a root raised cosine filter (RRCF). The OOB characteristics and degree of ICI and ISI generation change according to the selected pulse-shaping filter. Since the GFDM waveform has the same cyclic prefix (CP) as the OFDM waveform, the OOB characteristics are worse than the new waveform which does not have CP as explained previously. Consequently, to improve the OOB characteristics, guard symbol GFDM (GS-GFDM) method, which inserts a guard symbol between subsymbols, and windowed GFDM (W-GFDM), which performs window processing in the time domain, are being investigated. On the other hand, as the same synchronization technology is used as in OFDM, GFDM can realize synchronization more easily than other new waveforms without CP. Although GFDM is considered more complex to implement, its usefulness is attracting attention n ow. It is expected to offer flexible frame design in both time and frequency domains to applications such as IoT requiring low latency. 3 New Waveform Analysis Environment The previous sections describe the investigation results of the new waveforms that are studied as 5G PHY-layer candidates. RD activity for the new technologies requires versatile engineering tool that can provide seamless use of communication system simulation and verification by actual equipments. This chapter introduces evaluation environment configured and its testing examples. Figure 14 shows the configured new waveform analysis environment including MG3710A Signal Generator with AWG (Arbitrary Waveform Generator), MS2692A Signal Analyzer for waveform capture and MATLAB ® program for generation and analysis of transmitted and received waveforms. By using MATLAB ®, which is commercially available and widely used, building user-friendly GUI and testing various wireless systems become easy, quick and flexible. 3.1 New Waveform Interference Evaluations In the study of 5G waveform candidates, it is a key to identify waveforms to realize good spectrum efficiency of unused frequency bands. This section explains how to evaluate the impact from 5G waveform candidate to existing system waveform by using the new waveform analysis environment. In this evaluation, CP-OFDM waveform with band gap is defined as an existing system waveform and UF-OFDM waveform is defined as a candidate 5G waveform. And the impact of interference is evaluated when the defined waveforms are located side by side in the frequency domain. MG3710A can easily output desired and undesired signals by using add baseband function to synthesize and output two modulated signals from one RF signal (Figure. 15). This evaluation uses the capability to generate and synthesize CP-OFDM and UF-OFDM waveforms, and analyze the signal by MS2692A Signal Analyzer. Thus giving and receiving interference evaluation is realized. We show that the spectrum of the CP-OFDM waveform having band gap and the UF-OFDM waveform. The purple trace and the blue trace correspond to the CP-OFDM and the UF-OFDM respectively. OOB sidelobe of CP-OFDM and excellent UF-OFDM OOB characteristics are addressed. Interference evaluations based on the adding waveform at baseband of MG3710A have been described. By using this analysis environment with preparation of multiple 5G waveform candidates, OOB characteristics of each waveform, interference caused by them and spectrum allocation adequacy can be evaluated easily. 4 Conclusion Regarding the 5G waveform candidates, we have presented performance evaluations by simulation and fore-casted problems in the actual operation. It is presumed that these waveforms will be integrated into a flexible multi-carrier system supporting various use cases, frequency bands and radio wave environments. We will continue to research to provide optimum solutions for the complex multi-carrier waveform measurements.

Lord Capulet in William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet :: Papers

Lord Capulet in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet Lord Capulet is a character in the play "Romeo and Juliet" by William Shakespeare which we have been reading together in class. This piece is a study on this character. The story is of a young boy and girl who find love in each other but due to a sequence of events their lives are prematurely ended. Lord Capulet is the head of the Capulets and is well respected by the rest of his house. He is also Lady Capulets wife and Juliet's father. He is important in this story, as he is able to make decisions, which will affect the lives of many other people, not only in his own house but also in his bitter rivals house, The Montague's. Throughout the whole play there are scenes that revolve solely around him and Juliet, this makes him one of the most powerful people in the play and one of the main characters. The first time we see Capulet is in the brawl at the market, it is between the Capulets and Montagues. He immediately asks for his sword, "give me my long sword, ho!" as he sees Montague but his wife restrains him. You can tell by both his actions and his first words that he is not in a good mood and is spoiling for a fight also he acts like a middle aged man of around 40 years. We find out later in the play that he has a temper and his mood varies quickly from happy to anger or visa-versa. We next see Capulet in scene two where he is talking to Count Paris, an eligible young man who wishes to marry Juliet. He tells Paris that Juliet is too young, she's still only thirteen and he should wait until she is two years older, then he can marry her, "My child is yet a stranger in the world; she hath not seen the change of fourteen years". If not he should 'woo' Juliet and if she is happy, they shall talk again.

The Struggle of Women Trying to be Equal to Men Essay -- Feminism Femi

The Struggle of Women Trying to be Equal to Men Throughout many decades women have been struggling to be equal to men, both at home and in the work place. Women have come a long way and are certainly fighting to gain that equality, but gender roles are very important in our society. They have become important in life from birth, and society continues to push these gender roles. The treatment of the male gender is very different from that of the female, and this issue has become very important to me, as a woman. As children we learn and adapt to specific gender roles, and as we grow they become more evident and more important to our role in a society. There is a lot of discrimination against the female gender. Carol Gilligan argued that women are more likely to make decisions based on responsibility and norms of caring, where as men are likely to apply principles of justice to their decisions .Because of this discrimination, social mobility has been difficult, but is definitely changing to benefit women and is definitely something I would like to see changed. Women of the later 20th century are fighting more to end the discrimination, and a lot has improved. But women are still looked down upon in society, and men still have the power. I believe that this issue is important, not only to myself, but to everyone. It is an issue that effects everyone, and people have to realize that women are stronger, smarter and involved with the world much more than they were a half a cen...

The Theory Of Storage :: essays research papers

The Theory of Storage THE THEORY OF STORAGE. â€Å"THE SUPPLY OF STORAGE REFERS NOT TO THE SUPPLY Of STORAGE SPACE BUT TO THE SUPPLY OF COMMODITIES AS INVENTORIES. IN GENERAL A SUPPLIER OF STORAGE IS ANYONE WHO HOLDS TITLE TO STOCKS WITH A VIEW TO THEIR FUTURE SALE, EITHER IN THEIR PRESENT OR IN A MODIFIED FORM. SINCE PRODUCTION IS NOT STABLE FOR ALL COMMODITIES ESPECIALLY ARGICULTURAL CONSUMERS DEMAND THAT THE STORAGE FUNCTION BE SO PERFORMED THAT THE FLOW OF COMMODITIES FOR SALE WILL BE MADE RELATIVELY STABLE." (BRENNAN P. 51) "the theory purports to provide an explanation of the holding of all stocks, including those for which there is not an active future market. it will be shown that, on the supply side, in addition to the marginal expenditure on physical storage and the marginal convenience yield another variable, a risk premium, is required to explain the holding of stocks as functions of price spreads. in the empirical part of the study the theory will be applied to stocks of several agricultural commodities. the risk premium for each commodity will be measured residually under specified conditions by deducting form the price spread between two periods the other two components of the marginal cost of storage." (brennan p.50) IN GENERAL WE CAN OBTAIN A MEASURE OF THE RELATIVE RISK PREMIUMS INVOLVED IN THE STORAGE OF DIFFERENT COMMODITITES. "allen Paul, in a 1970 American journal of agricultural economics article, studied the pricing of grain storage space in the u.s. during the surplus period of the 1950s and 1960s. Paul's work differs from other works in that he investigates the pricing of all grain storage not just that available to a particular commodity. While brennan's marginal storage cost is from the point of view of the owner of the grain, Paul is looking at the first component only.

Introduction speech

My name is Sally and I'm a full-time student in Aviation Management & Services. It is an honor to stand here today, representing the class of 2014. First of all, congratulates to all fellow graduates for our success in TAP. The three years of hard work have finally paid off and now, we are ready to embark on a new chapter In our lives. How many of you still remember your very first day when you step Into the campus? Do you feel lost? Do you still remember when was the first occasion when you talked to that someone who is presently your closest friend? I believe many of you do encounter the problem of heart racing when you couldn't find your classroom on your first week of school and was still struggling to try to get used to the new people and new environment around you. However, this tough period has past and in a blink of an eye, we have all got closer with our classmates and have together created tons of wonderful memories during these three years. I guess what I will miss most af ter graduation will be the times here I had to rush for project deadlines with my group mates. It was almost every week that we had to stay back after school and also, spending countless sleepless nights to complete the projects.Indeed, it was a stressful period of time, but it trains us to work as a team and the sense of achievement and satisfaction after submitting a project that was well done is really indescribable. 4 Our time in TAP has been truly a great experience. The significant milestones that we had made were truly memorable. Recall back to the first orientation camp that we .NET to, our first presentation inferno of the class and our final year internship and major project has really shaped us to who we are today.A wise man once said that a journey Is best measured In smiles, rather than miles. I believe I wouldn't be what I am currently without the advice and support of many of the people here today. On behalf of Class of 2014, I would like to take this opportunity to t hank all the lecturers, tutors, family and friends who have supported us throughout the previous three 5 As we move on to the next phase of our lives, remember that graduation arks the end of one entryway and the opening of another.The future may be uncertain and surprise us, but here's some advice from Harvey McKay. He said: ‘ Find something you love to do, and you will never work a day in your life. † That is pretty much(virtually) what TAP taught me as well, ‘ Love what you do, and you will be doing what you love. ‘ As we spread our wings to take off higher, let's all remember that we have come this far through hardwood, cooperation and discipline. Thank you ladies and gentlemen and to my fellow graduates, Happy Graduation!

Is Hamlet primarily a tragedy of revenge Essay

Within â€Å"Hamlet† by William Shakespeare there are numerous events of revenge. Starting with Claudius’s envy of King Hamlet and ending with the murder of the king. Hamlet tries to avenge his father’s death by murdering Claudius but mistakenly kills Polonius. Claudius tells the news to Laertes right after the death of his father. Claudius hopes that Laertes will take matter into his own hands and slaughter Hamlet. Claudius needs Laertes to go after Hamlet before he has the opportunity to successfully assassinate Claudius. The families suffer from constant thoughts of vengeance which ultimately leads to their demise. Claudius’ envy eventually gets the better of him and compels him to butcher his brother, Lord Hamlet. Claudius finds himself in the shadow of his brother. The ghost, Lord Hamlet, explains his murder in detail to his son. The Ghost’s point of his speech to Hamlet is for Hamlet to avenge his death; â€Å"If thou didst ever thy dear father love . . . / Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder† (http://www. shakespeare-navigators. com/hamlet/One5. html) after the talk with his father, Hamlet is determined to kill Claudius. As in the Ten Commandments, the third of Ten Commandments says â€Å"Honour your father and Mother. † Lord Hamlet tells his son to kill Claudius, and from that point it becomes Hamlet’s life mission. He would die just to complete this goal. Hamlet had to kill Claudius when he was doing something immoral. Hamlet believes if Claudius is performing something pleasant, he will go to heaven instead of going to hell where Hamlet demands him to finish off. Hamlet’s want of slaying King Claudius inaugurates payback. Hamlet takes his chance to kill Claudius but mistakenly murders Polonius instead. There was a chance for Hamlet to kill Claudius but Hamlet found him praying. If you were praying and are killed while doing so you will go to heaven as you are doing something holy. To this day they would do a baptism or confession right before someone dies to release them from all of their sins. This process is called the anointment of the sick. Hamlet waits for another chance to kill Claudius when he is doing something unmerited, to make sure he goes to hell instead of going to heaven. With vengeance on Hamlet’s mind, he talks to Gertrude but hears someone behind the curtains. He saw this man hiding listening to their conversion, he strikes at the man, after stabbing the man he sees it is Polonius, not Claudius. This misfortune creates more drama for Hamlet but creates an unintended opening for Claudius to save himself from Hamlet. Claudius runs off to inform Laertes that his father was slain by Hamlet. When Claudius finds out Hamlet murdered Polonius, he ran to find safety as he knows that should have been him talking to Gertrude, not Polonius. While rushing over to notify Laertes of the situation, he thinks it’s only a matter of time before Hamlet exterminates him. The only person that can help him with this problem is Laertes as he now has a reason to kill him rather than just killing him for fun. Laertes is outraged and wants to avenge his father’s death by killing Hamlet. Laertes devised a plan to snuff Hamlet by â€Å"Which Laertes can kill Hamlet in front of an audience, and it will appear to be an accident; no one will know it is murder. Laertes shares his own plan to dip his sword in a poison so lethal that a minor scratch will cause instant death. † (http://www. cliffsnotes. com/study_guide/literature/hamlet/summary-analysis/act-iv/scene-7. tml) Claudius has a back-up plan† Claudius intends to present Hamlet, if Hamlet scores the first â€Å"hit,† with a poisoned goblet of wine. This way, Hamlet will be killed even if he wins the match. † (http://utminers. utep. edu/ajkline/hamlet. htm#Act IV, Scene vii:) just in case a mistake happens when Laertes is battling Hamlet. When Laertes and Hamlet finally meet and Laertes challenges Hamlet to a duel, with no hesitation Hamlet agrees. Before the fight Hamlet’s mind is all over the place but kept remembering â€Å"King hold his purpose, I will win for him if I can; if not, I will gain nothing but my shame and the odd hits. (Book Act 5 scene 2 Lines 168-170) It gave Hamlet the motivation he needed for the battle versus Laertes. When the fight ended there were many deaths as no one lived from Hamlet stabbing Claudius to death. The eradication of King Claudius, Hamlet finally avenged Lord Hamlet’s death. Claudius’ death means Hamlet would assume the throne as he’s next in line to be king. While in battle though he was wounded by Laertes and is going to die as there isn’t medical treatment that could have healed him in time. Hamlet finishes himself off by drinking some poison to put an end to his pain and suffering.